Urban Issues and Challenges is one of the most mark-rich topics on the AQA GCSE Geography Paper 2. It covers how and why cities are growing, the problems that growth creates, and the solutions being used to make cities more sustainable. This guide walks through every section of the topic with the exam technique built in.

Global Urbanisation — The Big Picture

The world is urbanising rapidly. For the first time in history, more than half the world's population now lives in cities, and that proportion is growing. The key term is the urban population— the percentage of a country's people living in towns and cities.

  • HICs (High-Income Countries) are already highly urbanised — the UK, USA, and Japan all have urbanisation rates above 80%. Growth here is slow.
  • LICs and NEEs (Low-Income Countries and Newly Emerging Economies) are urbanising fastest. Countries like Nigeria, India, and Brazil have massive rural-to-urban migration driven by economic opportunity, better services, and the pull of city life.

Be ready to explain the difference between urbanisation (the process) and urban growth (the result), and to name specific megacities — cities with over 10 million people. Examples include Lagos, Mumbai, São Paulo, and Tokyo.

Case Study 1 — A UK City (Liverpool or Manchester)

You need a detailed UK city case study. AQA students most commonly use Liverpool or Manchester, but check what your school has taught you. Whatever city you use, know these themes:

  • Urban change and inequality — different parts of the city have very different levels of deprivation. Know specific named areas and their characteristics.
  • Urban regeneration— what specific projects have been used to improve deprived areas? (e.g. Liverpool ONE shopping centre, the Granby Four Streets community-led regeneration, Manchester's MediaCityUK)
  • Transport issues — urban sprawl, congestion, and solutions such as tram systems (Manchester Metrolink) or cycle infrastructure.
  • Environmental sustainability — urban greening, waste management, renewable energy in the city.
"Named examples and statistics are what separate a Level 2 answer from a Level 3. 'Liverpool has regenerated its docklands' is worth 0 marks on its own. 'The Albert Dock regeneration in Liverpool attracted over £100 million of investment and now welcomes 5 million visitors per year' earns marks."

Case Study 2 — A City in an LIC or NEE (Rio de Janeiro)

Rio de Janeiro in Brazil is the most commonly used LIC/NEE city case study at GCSE. Know it across these themes:

  • Growth causes — rural-to-urban migration driven by rural poverty, drought, and the pull of economic opportunity in the city.
  • Social challenges— inequality, crime, lack of formal housing. Around 22% of Rio's population lives in favelas (informal settlements), such as Rocinha — the largest favela in South America, home to around 70,000 people.
  • Economic challenges — the informal economy (unregistered workers), high unemployment, and the concentration of wealth among a small elite.
  • Environmental challenges — air and water pollution, deforestation on the hillsides where favelas are built, flood risk.
  • Solutions — the Favela-Bairro project (upgrading services in favelas rather than demolishing them), cable car systems to improve access, policing programmes (UPP — Police Pacification Units).

Sustainable Urban Living

The final section of Urban Issues asks you to evaluate strategies for making cities more sustainable. A sustainable city meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. Strategies include:

  • Renewable energy — solar panels on public buildings, wind turbines
  • Green spaces — parks, urban forests, and green roofs that reduce flooding and improve air quality
  • Integrated transport — reducing car dependency through bus rapid transit, cycling infrastructure, and park-and-ride
  • Waste reduction — recycling schemes, composting, reducing landfill use

A useful case study for sustainable urban living is Freiburg, Germany— a city that generates more energy from solar power than it consumes, has one of Europe's best cycling networks, and kept car use out of its city centre. It is an effective comparison with less sustainable cities.

Urban Issues is a topic that rewards organised thinking and specific knowledge. If your case study detail feels thin, or you struggle to structure longer answers on this topic, I can work through the key examples and exam questions with you in a focused one-to-one session. Book through the portal and let's get it locked in.